Heavy metal contamination of aquatic ecosystems, originating from both geogenic sources like rock weathering and pervasive anthropogenic activities including industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and fossil fuel combustion, constitutes a severe environmental crisis due to the inherent toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulative propensity of these pollutants (Briffa et al., 2020). Upon mobilisation into aquatic systems, metals such as cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, and arsenic are assimilated by fish primarily through their gills, digestive tract, and integument, leading to significant bioaccumulation in tissues and subsequent biomagnification through the trophic levels (Ali et al., 2019). The fundamental mechanism of their toxicity involves the induction of profound oxidative stress, which disrupts cellular homeostasis, compromises immune competence, and inflicts damage on vital organs, including the gills, liver, and kidneys, ultimately manifesting in reduced growth rates, reproductive impairment, and behavioural alterations (Lushchak, 2016). In response, piscine organisms activate intricate defence mechanisms, notably the synthesis of metallothionein proteins for metal chelation and the upregulation of antioxidant enzymes to counteract oxidative damage; however, these protective systems are often overwhelmed at higher exposure concentrations. The grave implications for human health are realised through the trophic transfer of these accumulated metals via the consumption of contaminated fish (Has-Schön et al., 2006). This vector directly introduces toxicants into the human body, posing risks of neurological, cardiovascular, and renal disorders. Consequently, this exigent threat demands a multifaceted mitigation strategy, compelling the urgent promulgation and stringent enforcement of robust environmental legislation, the adoption of advanced remediation technologies for pollution containment, and the global implementation of sustainable resource management practices to safeguard both aquatic biodiversity and public health.
